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Glucose metabolism modulation Studies suggest it may inhibit gluconeogenesis (glucose production in the liver) and enhance glycolysis (glucose breakdown), thereby potentially reducing blood glucose levels

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These pathways include the cyclic AMP-protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA) pathway, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) signaling, and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-B)-mediated cascades, which regulate cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration

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it's problematic for high-dose NAD+, where individual tolerance, methylation status, and underlying health conditions significantly affect both safety and efficacy

The numerical values required to generate the main figures are provided in Supplementary Data 2